One of the most enduring school-level factors in the research literature is the effective use of time. In one meta-analysis of education research conducted by Scheerens and Bosker in 1997, the effect of time on student achievement was shown to have increased student achievement by 15 percentile points - the strongest single factor identified. One study which examined the impact of time in great depth (Denham & Lieberman, 1980) classified four basic types of time: 1) allocated time, instructional time, engaged time, and academic learning time.

Allocated time is that time in the school day specifically set aside for instruction, as opposed to non-instructional time like recess and lunch. Instructional time is the in-class time teachers spend on task, as opposed to management-oriented activities, like taking roll. Engaged time is that portion of time during which student are actually paying attention to the content being presented - often referred to as "time on task." Academic learning time is the proportion of engaged time during which students are successfully learning or successful at the task they are engaged in.

Researchers have found that each category of time shows a stronger correlation with student achievement than the previous one. That is, academic learning time has a stronger relationship with achievement than engaged time, and so on. At the school level, the implications of this research for school leaders is that they must

1. maximize the amount of time allocated for instruction

2. minimize the amount of instructional time lost to absenteeism and tardiness, and

3. minimize the amount of instructional time lost to unnecessary extracurricular activities.

This research also demonstrates that teachers need effective classroom management strategies in order to maximize their instructional time and minimize disruptions. However, it is important to note that, as researchers from LSS concluded in a study titled Extended School Day/Year Programs: A Research Synthesis, little research evidence exists to suggest that increasing the school day or school year will increase student achievement. Rather, "the crucial issue seems to be how the time is used, with quality of instruction being the key."

Block scheduling can be one strategy that allows teachers to better optimize their instructional time. Again, according to LSS researchers, the key is in how the programs are implemented - including how much support teachers are given to learn how to provide better instruction during longer class periods.

Next: Establishing and Monitoring Achievement Goals

Source: Marzano, R.J. (2000). A New Era of School Reform: Going Where the Research Takes Us. Aurora, CO: Mid-continent Research for Education and Learning.

Resources

The following resources offer school leaders additional research on the value of increasing instructional time and practical guidance on how to increase instructional time.

Scheduling Alternatives: Options for Student Success. This monograph, part of NWREL's "By Request" series, provides educators and school leaders with insights and practical guidance related to block scheduling, four-day school weeks, and year-round education.

Improving Student Achievement by Extending School: Is It Just a Matter of Time? This 1998 research synthesis from WestEd frames the research on the complex relationship between time and learning focusing primarily on the empirical evidence about how time affects student achievement.

Time & Learning: Making Time Count. Based on an examination of the research about the relationship of time to learning, this 2001 research brief from WestEd identifies the policy implications at both the state and federal levels.

Block Scheduling: Innovations with Time (Themes in Education Series). This booklet produced by the LAB at Brown provides an overview of block scheduling by presenting examples from schools that have arranged their course offerings to give both teachers and students an extended time period for teaching and learning. The benefits and concerns of block scheduling are discussed in detail. In addition, further reading and online resources are provided.

Spotlight 317: An Examination of the Impact of Block Scheduling. This 1998 research brief from LSS presents the experiences and preliminary outcomes of the block-scheduling model used in New Jersey's Upper Freehold Regional School District at Allentown High School.