| Economics |
| | | Standard 1. Understands that scarcity of productive resources requires choices that generate opportunity costs
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| | | | Level I [Grade: K-2] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that goods are objects that can satisfy people's wants, and services are activities that can satisfy people's wants |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that since people cannot have everything they want, they must make choices about using goods and services to satisfy wants |
| | | | | 3. | Knows that a cost is what you give up when you decide to do something, and a benefit is something that satisfies your wants |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that people who use goods and services are called consumers, and people who make goods or provide services are called producers, and that most people both produce and consume |
| | | | | 5. | Knows that natural resources are "gifts of nature" because they are present without human intervention |
| | | | | 6. | Knows that capital resources are things made by people that are used to make other goods or to provide services |
| | | | | 7. | Knows that human resources (i.e., labor or human capital) are the efforts of people who work to produce goods and to provide services |
| | | | | 8. | Knows that choices about what goods and services to buy and consume determine how resources will be used. |
| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that productive resources are all natural resources, human resources, and capital resources used to produce goods and to provide services |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that goods and services are scarce because there are not enough productive resources to satisfy all of the wants of individuals, governments, and societies |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that federal, state, and local governments have problems of scarcity also; because they have limited budgets, they must compare their revenues to the costs of public projects their citizens want |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that innovation is the introduction of an invention into a use that has economic value |
| | | | | 5. | Knows that entrepreneurs are people who use resources to produce innovative goods and services they hope people will buy |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that entrepreneurs take the risk that people won’t buy their products or won’t pay enough for them to cover the entrepreneurs’ costs |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that when productive resources are used to produce one good or service, the opportunity cost (i.e., what is given up) is other goods and services that would have been made with the same resources if the chosen good or service had not been made |
| | | | | 8. | Understands that choices usually involve trade-offs; people can give up buying or doing a little of one thing in order to buy or do a little of something else |
| | | | | 9. | Knows that economic specialization occurs when people produce a narrower range of goods and services than they consume |
| | | | | 10. | Understands how labor productivity can be increased as a result of specialization, division of labor, and more capital goods such as tools and machines |
| | | | | 11. | Understands that the quality of labor resources (i.e., human capital) can be improved through investments in education, training, and health care |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that scarcity of resources necessitates choice at both the personal and the societal levels |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that all decisions involve opportunity costs and that effective economic decision making involves weighing the costs and benefits associated with alternative choices |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that the evaluation of choices and opportunity costs is subjective and differs across individuals and societies |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that productivity can be measured as output per worker, per hour, per machine, or per unit of land |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that increasing labor productivity is the major way in which a nation can improve the standard of living of its people |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that marginal benefit is the change in total benefit resulting from an action, and marginal cost is the change in total cost resulting from an action |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that optimal levels of output (e.g., production output, output of services provided by a public program) can be determined by comparing the marginal benefits and costs of producing a little more against the marginal benefits and costs of producing a little less |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that increases in productivity are affected by incentives that reward successful innovation and investments (e.g., in research and development, and in physical and human capital) |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that investing in new physical or human capital involves a trade-off of lower current consumption in anticipation of greater future production and consumption |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that technological change and investments in capital goods and human capital may increase labor productivity but have significant opportunity costs and economic risks |
| | | Standard 2. Understands characteristics of different economic systems, economic institutions, and economic incentives
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| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that people's choices and behavior are influenced by positive incentives (i.e., rewards that make people better off) and negative incentives (i.e., penalties that make people worse off) |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that because people's views of rewards and penalties are different, the influence of an incentive can vary with the individual |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that the hope of earning profit (i.e., the difference between revenues and the costs of producing or selling a good or service) is the incentive that persuades entrepreneurs and business firms to take the risks of producing goods and services to sell |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that households (i.e., individuals or family units), as consumers, buy goods and services from business firms |
| | | | | 5. | Knows that households, as resource owners, sell productive resources (e.g., labor, natural resources, capital resources, entrepreneurial resources) to firms in order to earn income |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that all societies have developed various economic systems in order to allocate their resources to produce and distribute goods and services and there are advantages and disadvantages to each type of system |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that employers are willing to pay wages and salaries to workers because they expect to sell the goods and services those workers produce at prices high enough to cover the wages and salaries and all other costs of production |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that in a command economic system a central authority, usually the government, makes the major decisions about production and distribution |
| | | | | 3. | Knows that in a market economic system individual households and business firms make the major decisions about production and distribution in a decentralized manner following their own self-interests |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that national economies vary in the extent to which they rely on government directives (central planning) and signals from private markets |
| | | | | 5. | Understands the types of specialized economic institutions found in market economies (e.g., corporations, partnerships, cooperatives, labor unions, banks, nonprofit organizations) |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that economic incentives such as wanting to acquire money or goods and services and wanting to avoid loss are powerful forces affecting the way people behave |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that entrepreneurs respond to incentives such as profits, the opportunity to be their own boss, the chance to achieve recognition, the satisfaction of creating new products, and disincentives such as losses and the responsibility, long hours, and stress of running a business |
| | | | | 8. | Understands that in a market economy the pursuit of economic self-interest directs people and businesses in most of their economic decisions (e.g., to work, to save, to invest) |
| | | | | 9. | Understands that many non-economic factors (e.g., cultural traditions and customs, values, interests, abilities) influence patterns of economic behavior and decision making |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that the effectiveness of allocation methods can be evaluated by comparing costs and benefits |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that economic institutions (e.g., small and large firms, labor unions, not-for-profit organizations) have different goals, rules, and constraints, and thus respond differently to changing economic conditions and incentives |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that incorporation encourages investment by allowing firms to accumulate capital for large-scale investment and reducing risk to individual investors |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that property rights, contract enforcement, standards for weights and measures, and liability rules affect incentives for people to produce and exchange goods and services |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that in every economic system consumers, producers, workers, savers, and investors respond to incentives in order to allocate their scarce resources to obtain the highest possible return, subject to the institutional constraints of their society |
| | | Standard 3. Understands the concept of prices and the interaction of supply and demand in a market economy
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| | | | Level I [Grade: K-2] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that a price is the amount of money that people pay when they buy a good or service |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that a market exists whenever buyers and sellers exchange goods and services |
| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that in any market there is one price (i.e., the equilibrium or market clearing price) that makes the amount buyers want to buy equal to the amount sellers want to sell |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that people buy less of a product when its price goes up and more when its price goes down |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that businesses are willing and able to sell more of a product when its price goes up and less when its price goes down |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that when consumers make purchases, goods and services are transferred from businesses to households in exchange for money payments, which are used in turn by businesses to pay for productive resources and to pay taxes |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that relative prices refer to the price of one good or service compared to the prices of others goods and services |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that relative prices and how they affect people’s decisions are the means by which a market system provides answers to the basic economic questions: What goods and services will be produced? How will they be produced? Who will buy them? |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that the price of any one product is influenced by and also influences the prices of many other products |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that scarce goods and services are allocated in a market economy through the influence of prices on production and consumption decisions |
| | | | | 5. | Understands the "law of demand" (i.e., an increase in the price of a good or service encourages people to look for substitutes, causing the quantity demanded to decrease, and vice versa) |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that an increase in the price of a good or service enables producers to cover higher costs and earn profits, causing the quantity supplied to increase (and vice versa), but that this relationship is true only as long as other factors influencing costs of product and supply do not change |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that the demand for a product will normally change (i.e., the demand curve will shift) if there is a change in consumers’ incomes, tastes, and preferences, or a change in the prices of related (i.e., complementary or substitute) products |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that the supply of a product will normally change (i.e., the supply curve will shift) if there is a change in technology, in prices of inputs, or in the prices of other products that could be made and sold by producers |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that changes in supply or demand cause relative prices to change; in turn, buyers and sellers adjust their purchase and sales decisions |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that a shortage occurs when buyers want to purchase more than producers want to sell at the prevailing price, and a surplus occurs when producers want to sell more than buyers want to purchase at the prevailing price |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that shortages or surpluses usually result in price changes for products in a market economy |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that when price controls are enforced, shortages and surpluses occur and create long-run allocation problems in the economy |
| | | Standard 4. Understands basic features of market structures and exchanges
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| | | | Level Pre-K [Grade: Pre-K] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands basic concepts of buying, selling, and trading |
| | | | Level I [Grade: K-2] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that in an exchange people trade goods and services for other goods and services or for money |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that money is a good that can be used to buy all other goods and services |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that when two people trade because they want to, they expect to be better off after the exchange |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that barter is trading goods and services for other goods and services without using money |
| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that competitive markets are those with many buyers and sellers, where no one person or firm controls prices or the number of products for sale |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that money reduces the problems barter faces because money is easy to divide, carry, and store |
| | | | | 3. | Knows that banks play a key role in providing currency and other forms of money to consumers, and that banks serve as intermediaries between savers and borrowers |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that when people and nations specialize, they become more interdependent (i.e., less self-sufficient and more dependent on exchange) |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that money makes it easier to compare the value of different kinds of goods and services and allows people to save purchasing power for a later time because it can easily be traded for goods and services at any time |
| | | | | 6. | Understands how active competition among sellers results in lower prices and costs, higher product quality, and better customer service |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that not all competition is on the basis of price for identical products and that non-price competition includes style and quality differences, advertising, customer services, and credit policies |
| | | | | 2. | Understands how competition among buyers of a product results in higher prices for the product |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that the United States government uses laws and regulations to maintain competition, but sometimes the government reduces competition unintentionally or in response to special interest groups |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that money encourages people to specialize because they can operate more efficiently in an exchange (i.e., sell what they produce to anyone, not just to someone who has something they want) |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that the basic money supply is usually measured as the total value of coins, currency, and checking account deposits held by the public |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that collusion among buyers or sellers reduces the level of competition in a market and is more difficult in markets with large numbers of buyers and sellers |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that in the long run the level of competition in an industry is determined largely by how difficult and expensive it is for new firms to enter the market and by consumers’ information about the availability, price, and quantity of substitute goods and services |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that the introduction of new products and production methods by entrepreneurs is an important form of competition and source of technological progress and economic growth |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that externalities are unintended positive or negative side effects that result when the production or consumption of a good or service affects the welfare of people who are not the parties directly involved in the market exchange (e.g., a negative externality in consumption occurs when cigarette smoking by one individual has harmful or undesirable effects on nonsmokers, a positive externality in production occurs when a neighbor’s home improvements increase the value of nearby properties) |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that a natural monopoly exists when it is cheaper for one supplier to produce all of the output in a market than for two or more producers to share the output (e.g., electric companies) |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that public service commissions typically regulate natural monopolies because people cannot rely on competition to control price and service levels in these cases |
| | | | | 8. | Understands that when transaction costs (e.g., tariffs, costs of gathering or disseminating information on products, transportation costs paid by the consumer) decrease, more specialization and trading will occur |
| | | Standard 5. Understands unemployment, income, and income distribution in a market economy
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| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that unemployed people are those who are willing and able to work at current wage rates, but do not have jobs |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows the four basic categories of earned income: wages and salaries, rent, interest, and profit |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that wages and salary are influenced by forces of supply and demand for labor, as well as an individual's productivity, education, training and skills |
| | | | | 3. | Knows that the government defines "the labor force" as people at least 16 years old who either have a job or are actively looking for work |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that the unemployment rate (i.e., the percentage of the labor force considered to be unemployed) rises during a recession, and the economy's production is less than its potential level |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that personal income is influenced by changes in the structure of the economy, the level of gross domestic product, technology, government policies, production costs and demand for specific goods and services, and discrimination |
| | | | | 2. | Understands the concept of supply and demand in the labor market (e.g., if wage or salary payments increase, workers will increase the quantity of labor they supply and firms will decrease the quantity of labor they demand) |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that for the functional distribution of income economists analyze what percentage of national income is paid out as wages and salaries, proprietors' income, rental income, and interest payments and trace that pattern of income distribution over time |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that the personal distribution of income classifies the population according to the amount of income they receive, including transfer payments |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that governments often redistribute income directly when individuals or interest groups are not satisfied with the income distribution resulting from markets, and that governments may also redistribute income indirectly as side-effects of other government actions that affect prices or output levels for various goods and services |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that the standard measure of the unemployment rate is flawed (e.g., it does not include discouraged workers, it does not weigh part-time and full-time employment differently, it does not account for differences in the intensity with which people look for jobs) |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that many factors contribute to differing unemployment rates for various regions and groups (e.g., regional economic differences; differences in labor force immobility; differences in ages, races, sexes, work experiences, training and skills; discrimination) |
| | | | | 8. | Knows that economists do not define full employment as 100 percent employment of the labor force because there is always some unavoidable unemployment due to people changing jobs (i.e., frictional unemployment) or entering the labor force for the first time |
| | | | | 9. | Understands frictional, seasonal, structural, and cyclical unemployment and that different policies may be required to reduce each |
| | | Standard 6. Understands the roles government plays in the United States economy
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| | | | Level I [Grade: K-2] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that some of the goods and services we use are provided by the government (e.g., schools, parks, police and fire protection) |
| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that the government pays for the goods and services it provides through taxing and borrowing |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that in a market economy the government helps markets to operate efficiently by protecting property rights (i.e. the right to exclude others from using a good or service and the right to transfer ownership) and by providing a system of weights and measures and a standard and stable currency |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that governments provide public goods because of the properties of shared consumption (i.e., non-rival products that can be used simultaneously by more than one person without reducing the amount of the product available for others to consume) and non-exclusion (i.e., public goods and service provide benefits to more than one person at the same time, and their use cannot be restricted only to those people who have paid to use them) |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that because citizens, government employees, and elected officials do not always directly bear the costs of their political decisions, sometimes policies have costs that outweigh their benefits for society |
| | | | | 2. | Understands that most federal tax revenue comes from personal income and payroll taxes, and these taxes are used to fund social security payments, the costs of national defense, medical expenditures, and interest payments on the national debt |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that most state and local government revenues come from sales taxes, grants from the federal government, personal income taxes, and property taxes, and are used to fund education, public welfare, road constructions and repair, and public safety |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that government can use subsidies to help correct for insufficient output, use taxes to help correct for excessive output, or can regulate output directly to correct for over- or under-production or consumption of a product |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that governments provide an alternative method to markets for supplying goods and services when it appears that the benefits to society of doing so outweigh the costs to society but that not all individuals will bear the same costs or share the same benefits of these policies |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that incentives exist for political leaders to implement policies (e.g., price controls, barriers to trade) that disperse costs widely over large groups of people and benefit relatively small, politically powerful groups of people. |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that few incentives exist for political leaders to implement policies that entail immediate costs and deferred benefits, even though these types of programs may be more economically effective |
| | | Standard 7. Understands savings, investment, and interest rates
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| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that savings is the part of income not spent on taxes or consumption |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that funds are channeled from savers to borrowers through banks. |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that an interest rate is a price of money that is borrowed or saved and that interest rates are determined by the forces of supply and demand |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that the real interest rate is the nominal or current interest rate minus the expected rate of inflation |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that higher interest rates provide incentives for people to save more and to borrow less, and vice versa |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that real interest rates are normally positive because people must be compensated for deferring the use of resources from the present into the future |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that riskier loans command higher interest rates than safer loans because of the greater chance of default on the repayment of risky loans |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that higher interest rates reduce business investment spending and consumer spending; thus, policies that raise and lower interest rates can affect spending |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that expectations of increased inflation may lead to higher interest rates |
| | | Standard 8. Understands basic concepts of United States fiscal policy and monetary policy
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| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that fiscal policy involves the use of national government spending and taxation programs to affect the level of economic activity in order to promote price stability, maximum employment, and reasonable economic growth |
| | | | | 2. | Understands the concepts of balanced budget, budget deficit, and budget surplus |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that when the government runs a budget deficit, it must borrow from individuals, corporations, or financial institutions to finance the excess of expenditures over tax revenues |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that the national debt is the total amount of money that the government has borrowed over all the years it ran deficits that have not been repaid |
| | | | | 5. | Knows that monetary policy refers to actions by the Federal Reserve System that lead to changes in the amount of money in circulation and the availability of credit in the financial system |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that fiscal policies take time to affect the economy and that they may be reinforced or offset by monetary policies and changes in private investment spending by businesses and individuals |
| | | | | 7. | Knows that the major monetary policy tools that the Federal Reserve System uses are open market purchases or sales of government securities, increasing the discount rate charged on loans it makes to commercial banks, and raising or lowering reserve requirements for commercial banks |
| | | | | 8. | Understands that when banks make loans, the money supply increases, and when loans are paid back, the country’s money supply shrinks |
| | | | | 9. | Understands that changes in the money supply lead to changes in interest rates and in individual and corporate spending which may influence the levels of spending, employment, prices, and economic growth in the economy |
| | | Standard 9. Understands how Gross Domestic Product and inflation and deflation provide indications of the state of the economy
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| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that inflation refers to a sustained increase in the average price level of the entire economy |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that deflation refers to a sustained decrease in the average price level of the entire economy |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that inflation reduces the value of money and that people’s purchasing power declines if their incomes increase more slowly than the inflation rate |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is the total market value, expressed in dollars, of all final goods and services produced in the economy in a given year and is used as an indicator of the state of the economy |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that inflation is usually measured by the Consumer Price Index (CPI) which shows the increases or decreases in price level from one year to another |
| | | | | 2. | Knows the difference between "nominal" GDP (i.e., GDP stated in current dollars where an increase in GDP may reflect not only increases in the production of goods and services, but also increases in general prices) and "real" GDP (i.e., GDP which has been adjusted for price level changes) |
| | | | | 3. | Knows the factors upon which a country’s GDP depends (e.g., quantity and quality of natural resources, size and skills of labor force, size and quality of capital stock) |
| | | | | 4. | Understands the economic growth is a sustained rise in GDP, which results from investments in human and physical capital, research and development, technological change, and improved institutional arrangements and incentives |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that economic growth can alleviate poverty, raise standards of living, create new employment and profit opportunities in some industries, but can also reduce opportunities in other industries |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that inflation creates uncertainty because it affects different groups differently (e.g., inflation hurts people on fixed incomes, but helps people who have borrowed money at a fixed rate of interest) and because it causes people to devote resources to protect themselves from inflation |
| | | | | 7. | Knows that inflation occurs (and/or employment increases) when money supply or desired expenditures for consumption, investment, government spending, and net exports are greater than the value of a nation’s output of final goods and services, and vice versa (i.e., inflation decreases when these expenditures are less than the value of output) |
| | | | | 8. | Understands that government policies designed to reduce unemployment (e.g., increasing federal spending, reducing taxes) may increase inflation, and vice versa |
| | | Standard 10. Understands basic concepts about international economics
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| | | | Level II [Grade: 3-5] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that different currencies are used in different countries |
| | | | Level III [Grade: 6-8] |
| | | | | 1. | Knows that exports are goods and services produced in one nation but sold to buyers in another nation |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that imports are goods or services bought from sellers in another nation |
| | | | | 3. | Understands that international trade promotes greater specialization, which increases total world output, and increases material standards of living |
| | | | | 4. | Knows that an exchange rate is the price of one nation’s currency in terms of another nation’s currency, and that exchange rates are determined by the forces of supply and demand |
| | | | | 5. | Understands that extensive international trade requires an organized system for exchanging money between nations (i.e., a foreign exchange market) |
| | | | | 6. | Knows that despite the advantages of international trade (e.g., broader range of choices in buying goods and services), many nations restrict the free flow of goods and services through a variety of devices known as "barriers to trade" (e.g., tariffs, quotas) for national defense reasons or because some companies and workers are hurt by free trade |
| | | | | 7. | Understands that increasing international interdependence causes economic conditions and policies in one nation to affect economic conditions in many other nations |
| | | | | 8. | Knows how the level of real GDP per capita is used to compare the level of economic development in different nations |
| | | | Level IV [Grade: 9-12] |
| | | | | 1. | Understands that trade between nations would not occur if nations had the same kinds of productive resources and could produce all goods and services at the same real costs |
| | | | | 2. | Knows that a nation has an absolute advantage if it can produce more of a product with the same amount of resources than another nation, and it has a comparative advantage when it can produce a product at a lower opportunity cost than another nation |
| | | | | 3. | Knows that comparative advantages change over time because of changes in resource prices and events that occur in other nations |
| | | | | 4. | Understands that a change in exchange rates changes the relative price of goods and services traded by the two countries and can have a significant effect on the flow of trade between nations and on a nation’s domestic economy |
| | | | | 5. | Knows that a nation pays for its imports with its exports |
| | | | | 6. | Understands that public policies affecting foreign trade impose costs and benefits on different groups of people (e.g., consumers may pay higher prices, profits in exporting firms may decrease), and that decisions on these policies reflect economic and political interests and forces |
